Frank R. Libsch, Takatoshi Tsujimura
Active Matrix Liquid Crystal Displays Technology and Applications 1997
Phase transitions between solid, liquid, gas and plasma are common to most matter and have been extremely well studied. The existence of another, the so-called fifth state of matter is much less known, although it was predicted in the 1920s by Satyendranath Bose and Albert Einstein. It requires identical particles that follow the Bose-Einstein statistics, i.e. having integer spin. In the phase transition from a dilute gas to such a Bose-Einstein condensate (BEC) atoms and molecules lose their individual character and collectively join the lowest quantum state. The long-range coherence between the particles establishes a macroscopic blob of quantum fluid which can exhibit unique properties like superfluidity, much different to the other states of matter.
Frank R. Libsch, Takatoshi Tsujimura
Active Matrix Liquid Crystal Displays Technology and Applications 1997
T.N. Morgan
Semiconductor Science and Technology
O.F. Schirmer, W. Berlinger, et al.
Solid State Communications
P.C. Pattnaik, D.M. Newns
Physical Review B